Answer:
The Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95, also known as the First Sino-Japanese War, was a conflict between the Empire of Japan and the Qing dynasty of China over control of Korea. The war ended with a decisive Japanese victory and the Treaty of Shimonoseki, which forced China to recognize the independence of Korea and cede Taiwan, the Pescadores Islands, and the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan.
The significance of the Sino-Japanese War was manifold. It marked the emergence of Japan as a major imperial power in East Asia, challenging China's traditional dominance of the region. The war also exposed the weaknesses and incompetence of the Qing dynasty and hastened its decline and eventual collapse. The loss of Taiwan was a severe blow to China's territorial integrity, and the transfer of its lease to Russia caused concern in the Western powers.
The Sino-Japanese War further intensified the competition for control of China among the European powers and the United States, foreshadowing the imperialist scramble for spheres of influence that ensued in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It also set the stage for future conflicts and tensions between Japan and China, as well as Japan's expansionist ambitions in Asia that would lead to further wars and atrocities in the decades to come.
Answer:
Explanation:1. It dealt a heavy blow to the imperialist ambition to invade China and shattered their plan to divide up China and turn it into a complete colony. It is precisely the heroic struggle of the Chinese people that demonstrates their indomitable patriotism and provides a heavy blow and profound lesson to foreign aggressors, making it increasingly clear to the great powers that China is a difficult country to conquer.
2. The patriotic spirit it embodies has cast the national soul of the Chinese nation.
After the Opium War, advanced Chinese people began to reminisce deeply, pay attention to understanding the international situation, study foreign history and geography, summarize the lessons of failure, and find ways to save the country and resist the enemy. As a result, the idea of learning from barbarians and using their skills to control them was proposed.
3. To enable our country and nation to endure adversity and repeated aggression without perishing.
4. The failure of the anti war of aggression has educated the Chinese people from the opposite side and greatly promoted the Chinese people's thinking, exploration and rise. The process of the anti war of aggression is a process of gradual awakening of the Chinese nation.
Briefly describe the controversies surrounding the Chinese government versus persecuted religions, such as the Falun Gong and Uygher Muslims. This doesn't have to be a long essay - just enough to show you understand the situations.
Here is a brief summary of the key controversies surrounding the Chinese government and persecuted religious groups:
The Chinese government is officially atheist and places strict controls on religious practice. Two major controversies involve the Falun Gong spiritual movement and Muslims in Xinjiang province.
Falun Gong, also known as Falun Dafa, was banned in 1999 after its founder publicly criticized government officials. The government then launched a massive campaign to persecute Falun Gong practitioners. Hundreds of thousands were detained, tortured, or killed. The government claimed they were an "evil cult," but Falun Gong said they practiced traditional Chinese spiritual beliefs and posed no threat. It highlighted the government's extreme intolerance of any dissident spiritual movement.
In Xinjiang, over a million Uyghur Muslims and other ethnic minorities have been detained in internment camps. The government portrays them as extremists obtaining illegal religious training, but former detainees describe the camps as forced political indoctrination and cultural erasure. Uyghurs say the crackdown is an assault on their religious and ethnic identity. The internment campaign has been denounced as a mass violation of human rights.
In both cases, the Chinese government claims it is protecting citizens and national security from nefarious religious influences. But its critics argue it is systematically repressing religious freedom and persecuting spiritual groups whose beliefs it disapproves of or sees as a political threat. The controversies highlight China's fragile relationship with faith and simmering tensions with religious minorities.
Does this summary cover the key elements of the controversies surrounding China, Falun Gong, and Muslim groups in Xinjiang? Let me know if you would like me to explain anything in more detail.
Answer:
Explanation:
The Chinese government has been accused of persecuting religious groups such as Falun Gong and Uygher Muslims. Falun Gong is a spiritual practice that incorporates meditation and qigong exercises, but it was labeled a cult by the Chinese government in the late 1990s. Since then, Falun Gong practitioners have faced harassment, imprisonment, and allegations of torture in China.
Uygher Muslims are a minority group in China's Xinjiang region. The Chinese government has been accused of detaining over a million Uyghers in "reeducation" camps, where they are allegedly subject to forced labor and ideological indoctrination. The government claims that these camps are designed to combat terrorism and extremism.
Critics of the Chinese government have accused them of violating basic human rights, including freedom of religion and freedom of expression. The Chinese government denies these allegations and insists that they are acting to maintain stability and security in the country.
Why is it that the kilometers of railway increased so much in the 1900 to 1909
Finally, look at Figurr 2. In 1871, Germany took the alsace and lorraine territory from France. How might nationalism helpshape the French response to this loss of territory.
Nationalism is a sense of pride and loyalty to one's nation or cultural identity, and it often involves a strong emotional attachment to one's country and a desire to protect its interests. The loss of territory to a rival nation can be seen as a threat to the national identity and pride of the affected country, and it can provoke a strong response from the people and the government.
In the case of France losing Alsace and Lorraine to Germany in 1871, nationalism may have helped shape the French response in several ways. Firstly, the French people would likely feel a strong sense of national pride and attachment to these regions, which had been part of France for centuries. The loss of these territories to Germany could be seen as a blow to French national identity and a betrayal of the country's history and culture.
Secondly, nationalism could have influenced the French government to take a more aggressive stance towards Germany and seek to reclaim the lost territories. The government may have used the loss of Alsace and Lorraine to rally support for a more assertive foreign policy and to build a stronger military to confront Germany.
Finally, nationalism may have helped foster a sense of unity and solidarity among the French people, as they came together to resist the loss of their territories and protect their national identity. This could have manifested in a range of cultural and political movements, such as the promotion of the French language and culture, the development of national symbols and rituals, and the growth of patriotic and nationalist political parties.
Overall, nationalism played a significant role in shaping the French response to the loss of Alsace and Lorraine, and it helped to shape French national identity and political culture in the years following the Franco-Prussian War.
Nationalism could shape the French response to the loss of Alsace and Lorraine territory by fueling a desire for revenge and restoration of national pride.
Explanation:Nationalism could shape the French response to the loss of Alsace and Lorraine territory by fueling a desire for revenge and restoration of national pride. The French people might have felt a strong sense of national identity and loyalty to their country, which could have motivated them to take action to regain the lost territories. Nationalist sentiments may have also led to an increase in military spending and the strengthening of the French military in order to better defend against future aggression.
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Has anyone done this worksheet? If so please the send the answers or the link to the answers!!
The method of control described in totalitarianism was effective for Hitler and the Nazi Party to gain, consolidate, and maintain power in Germany because it allowed them to control all aspects of society and suppress any opposition, creating a culture of fear and obedience.
That is totalitarianism?Totalitarian control refers to an autocratic system of governance where one ruling party attempts to gain complete control over all aspects of the populace's lives. The methods employed by these parties usually include propaganda dissemination, censorship activities and crackdowns on opposition movements.
After seizing power, such regimes usually erect facilities for cultivating a cult-like following around their leaders while simultaneously curbing any forms of opposition through the establishment of secret policing units.
They also employ strategic control over both mass media and education systems aimed at promulgating their ideologies.
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What would be the most appropriate heading for the partial outline below?
A. Treatment of Japanese Americans
B. Segregation of African Americans in
the armed forces
C. United States reactions to the Nazi Holocaust
D. Use of the atomic bomb
Issues of Morality during World War II
————————————————
1. Issues of Morality during World War II
2. Domestic Policies during World War II
3. Economic Problems during World War II
4. Reasons for the Success of the Allies during World War II
The most appropriate heading for the partial outline below is
A Treatment of Japanese Americans
How to find the appropriate heading?The overview manages to expound on an assortment of questions and matters associated with World War II, and the treatment of Japanese Americans during the said period is among the specified topics under consideration.
In contrast, choices B, C and D do not associate closely with the general subject matter around which the sketch revolves, topics related to World War II rather than segregation within the military force, the American response to the Nazi Holocaust, or implementing the atomic bomb.
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explain why the process of industrialization brought about a dramatic transformation during the 19th century.explain why the process of industrialisation brought about a dramatic social transformation during the 19th century
The process of industrialization during the 19th century brought about a dramatic social transformation due to urbanization, economic changes, technological innovations, social and cultural changes, and globalization.
What is Industrialization?
Industrialization is the process of transforming an economy from primarily agrarian and manual labor-based to one that is dominated by industrial production using machinery, automation, and advanced technology.
The process of industrialization during the 19th century brought about a dramatic transformation in many aspects of society, leading to significant changes in economies, societies, and lifestyles.
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How did the Romanian Revolution effect the fall of the soviet union?
The long-time general secretary of the Romanian Communist Party (PCR), Nicolae Ceaușescu, and his wife Elena was carried out in a drumhead trial that defined the end of 42 years of communist rule in Romania. The Romanian Revolution started in the city of Timișoara and rapidly spread throughout the nation.
New marketplaces and trade connections were made possible by the Revolution. Their victory also allowed for the occupation and settlement of the western regions, opening up new home markets. Instead of relying entirely on British manufacturers, Romanian started to produce their own goods.
However significant the changes were, the Romanian Revolution War had its limitations. Women, slaves, and Native Romanian all participated in various ways during the war, continuing their unparalleled expansion into political matters during the imperial struggle. These groups did not, however, achieve civic equality as a result of the Revolution.
In reality, the Romanian Revolution sparked a number of civil conflicts. Many of the disagreements and grudges that fueled these conflicts existed prior to the Revolution, and the start of the war served as the trigger that allowed them to emerge.
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How did abolitionists get their name?
Answer:
Abolitionists were named after their goal of abolishing or ending slavery. The term "abolitionist" was first used in the United States in the late 18th century to describe people who were actively working to end the practice of slavery. Abolitionists believed that slavery was morally wrong and that it violated the principles of equality and freedom upon which the country was founded.
Explanation: In the early years of the movement, abolitionists faced strong opposition from pro-slavery groups and were often seen as radical and dangerous. However, their efforts eventually helped to bring about the end of slavery in the United States with the passage of the 13th Amendment to the Constitution in 1865.
during world war I, japan demonstrated its growing power by: a. using its large navy to capture german colonies in the pacific and indian oceans. b. convincing china and korea to join it in a military alliance against germany. c. providing food and military equipment to the united states throughout the war. d. sending troops to europe to help end the stalemate on the western front.
During World War I, Japan demonstrated its growing power by using its large navy to capture German colonies in the Pacific and Indian oceans. The right answer is a.
In an alliance with Entente Powers, Japan took part in World War I from 1914 to 1918. As an ally of the Allies, Japan was crucial in safeguarding the maritime lanes in the West Pacific and Indian Oceans against the Imperial German Navy. On a political level the Japanese Empire took advantage of the chance to increase its influence in China and establish itself as a major player in postwar geopolitics.
The Japanese military captured German assets in the Pacific and East Asia, taking advantage of the wide boundaries and Imperial Germany's focus on the European War, although there was no significant economic mobilisation.
The correct answer is option a.
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Which best describes the way historains consider letters and journals
how might nationalism help shape the french response to this loss of territory?
Answer:
Explanation:
Nationalism could play a significant role in shaping the French response to the loss of territory. Nationalism refers to the strong sense of pride and loyalty to one's country, and it often drives people to defend their nation's interests and sovereignty. In the context of losing territory, French nationalists may view this as an attack on their country's identity and pride. As a result, they may demand a strong response from the government to reclaim the lost territory or seek compensation from the responsible party. Nationalism can also unite people behind a common cause, creating a sense of solidarity and shared purpose. Therefore, the French government may leverage nationalism to garner public support for its response to the loss of territory.
What are two examples of concurrent powers?
The US Constitution grants some authority to the federal government without preventing the states from exercising them. Powers that are shared by the State and the federal government are known as concurrent powers. These concurrent rights include the ability to establish courts, tax people, regulate elections, and borrow money.
What is concurrent power?Powers that the federal government and the state governments both exercise are referred to as concurrent powers. This encompasses the authority to levy taxes, construct roads, and establish inferior courts. The federal government and each constituent political unit, such as a state or province, have the same authority under a federal state's concurrent powers. The same region, the same group of individuals, and the same subject matter are all permissible contexts for simultaneous use of these authorities. The states and the federal government may both exercise what are known as concurrent powers. Creating courts, enforcing taxation, and borrowing and spending money are a few examples of these.To learn more about concurrent power, refer to:
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Question 2 Remus and Romulus were the first emperors of Rome. True O False
Answer:true
Explanation:
Question 7 of 10
What are human resources?
OA. People who add value to a business because the company needs
them to accomplish its goals.
B. Materials that are used to complete business tasks and achieve
company goals.
C. People a business sells its goods and services to as a way for the
business to achieve profit goals.
OD. People who make decisions about a company based on what they
read in job postings.
Human resources are A. People who add value to a business because the company needs them to accomplish its goals.
Who are human resources?Human resources are all the employees of an organization.
They are seen as the most important resources of a company because they provide their skills, knowledge, experience, etc., to the success of the organization.
Human resources include all employees, from entry-level workers to top-level workers or executives, and the managers.
They work to add value to the organization and to achieve organizational goals.
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A government passes a law increasing taxes on banks. Two days later, there are several bank robberies. A politician who opposed the taxes claims that the new law is causing bank robberies. What is wrong with the politician's argument? O A. It uses historical narrative instead of historical fact. OB. It provides only one cause for an event. OC. It ignores the importance of correlation. O D. It claims that correlation is the same as causation.
64. Planning for negotiation also involves the development of supporting a. friends O b. point O c. advise O d. arguments
Answer:
D
Explanation:
Planning for negotiation also involves the development of supporting arguments. The correct option is d.
What is the main process of negotiation?Multiple rounds of discussions, proposals, and counteroffers are frequently included in the negotiating process. Making an early offer that fits your desired outcome or could be more advantageous to the company during this time can be advantageous.
Planning for negotiation involves developing arguments that support your position and help you persuade the other party to agree to your terms. These arguments should be based on facts, data, and logic, and should be tailored to the needs and interests of the other party.
In addition to arguments, planning for negotiation may also involve developing strategies, identifying possible outcomes, and anticipating objections and counterarguments. Effective planning can help you achieve your goals in negotiation and build stronger relationships with the other party.
Thus, the ideal selection is option d.
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10. Which of these states a difference between personal income (PI) and disposable personal income (DPI)?
A. Pl is measured before taxes are taken; DPI is measured after taxes are taken.
B. Pl is measured after taxes are taken; DPI is measured before taxes are taken.
C. Pl refers to an individual's income; DPI denotes income from an entire sector.
D. Pl denotes income from an entire sector, DPI refers to an individual's income
117
Before taxes are deducted, PI is measured; after taxes are deducted, DPI is measured.
What is disposable personal income?Earnings after taxes. It matters to the economy as a whole and to individuals how much money Americans have left over after paying taxes to spend or save. Individual income less individual current taxes is the calculation. The sum of all the individual incomes of those residing in a certain household or place of residence is known as the household income. It covers all sources of income, such as salary and earnings, retirement income, nearly cash government handouts like food stamps, and investment gains. Personal income is the sum of payments made to people (including income from wages and salaries and other sources) and transfers received from the government, less social insurance contributions made by the workers. After taxes, both individuals and nonprofit organisations' disposable personal income is measured.To learn more about disposable personal income, refer to:
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In your own words, explain why African Americans shifted their political allegiance to the
Democratic Party in large numbers during President Roosevelt's administration. Support
your answer with at least two points of evidence.
African Americans shifted their political allegiance to the Democratic Party in large numbers during President Roosevelt's administration are the basis of several reasons such as:
bring about changespending programsthe New Dealrelief for poverty and unemployment.African Americans were drawn to the Democratic Party under Roosevelt's leadership because it had assembled a strong coalition with the goal of enacting change.
The Republican Party, which had fallen out of favor with African Americans due to its inaction on these problems, was perceived as being less supportive of civil rights and equality among races than the Democratic Party.
As a result, the significance of the African Americans shifted their political allegiance to the Democratic Party are the aforementioned.
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How did the use of slavery affect agriculture in Ancient Mesopotamia?
Answer:
Slavery was crucial to agriculture in ancient Mesopotamia, with slaves used in various tasks. However, mistreatment of slaves and lack of innovation may have contributed to the civilization's decline.
In terms of who was likely to be a Progressive, it was usually:
Answer: middle class
educated professionals, journalists (who exposed social and political injustices), women's rights activists
How was production different after the Industrial Revolution than it was
before?
A. Before the Industrial Revolution, items were produced by factory
owners. After the Industrial Revolution, items were produced by
factory workers.
OB. Before the Industrial Revolution, items were produced in cities.
After the Industrial Revolution, items were produced on farms.
OC. Before the Industrial Revolution, items were produced one at a
time. After the Industrial Revolution, items were mass produced.
D. Before the Industrial Revolution, workers controlled the means of
production. After the Industrial Revolution, governments controlled
the means of production.
Answer:
Explanation:
C. Before the Industrial Revolution, items were produced one at a time. After the Industrial Revolution, items were mass-produced.
Before the Industrial Revolution, production was mainly done by hand using simple tools, and items were produced one at a time by skilled artisans or craftsmen. The production process was slow, inefficient, and often limited to local markets.
During the Industrial Revolution, new machines were invented and factories were built to house these machines. These machines could produce goods on a much larger scale, using standardized parts and assembly line techniques, which allowed for mass production. This enabled goods to be produced faster, cheaper, and in larger quantities than ever before.
Therefore, the main difference in production after the Industrial Revolution was the shift from manual labor to machine-based manufacturing, which allowed for mass production of goods.
Which regions are not very far from Spain?
Explanation:
There are several regions that are not very far from Spain. This largely depends on the mode of transportation and the specific location in Spain that you are starting from. Here are some examples of regions that are relatively close to Spain:
1. Portugal: Spain shares a border with Portugal, and many Spanish cities such as Badajoz, Salamanca, and Zamora are located near the border.
2. Southern France: Areas in the south of France such as the Pyrenees region or the cities of Perpignan and Avignon are relatively close to Spain.
3. Balearic Islands: The Balearic Islands (Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza, and Formentera) are located east of Spain in the Mediterranean Sea and can be reached by ferry or plane from various cities in mainland Spain.
4. North Africa: The Spanish enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla are located in North Africa, and there are also several cities on the African continent (such as Tangier in Morocco or Oran in Algeria) that are relatively close to Spain.
Again, the exact distance will depend on the location in Spain and the mode of transportation.
In your own words, explain why African Americans shifted their political allegiance to the Democratic Party in large numbers during President Roosevelt's administration.
Support
your answer with at least two points of evidence.
The African Americans shifted their political allegiance to the Democratic Party because his administration's policies aimed at addressing economic and social inequalities.
Why did they shift their political allegiance to the Democratic Party?The Great Depression had huge devastating impact on African Americans, so, Roosevelt's New Deal policies aimed to address economic and social inequalities which includes provisions for job creation, social security, and labor protections.
All these policies were seen as beneficial to African Americans and helped to create a sense of loyalty to the Democratic Party. Roosevelt also appointed African Americans to prominent government positions and worked to address racial discrimination in the military.
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What was the outcome of the Gallipoli campaign?
The Allied forces successfully captured the Dardanelles Strait
O The Ottoman forces were defeated and forced to surrender
O
The campaign resulted in a stalemate with heavy casualties on both sides
O
The campaign was a success and paved the way for emerging national identities
Answer:
The campaign resulted in a stalemate with heavy casualties on both sides.
Explanation:
The campaign resulted in a stalemate with heavy casualties on both sides was the outcome of the Gallipoli campaign. Thus, option (c) is correct.
From 19 February 1915 to 9 January 1916, the Gallipoli campaign was a military operation on the Gallipoli peninsula during the First World War. By seizing control of the Ottoman straits, the Entente powers—Britain, France, and the Russian Empire—sought to weaken the Ottoman Empire, one of the Central Powers.
Over 8700 Australian soldiers were among the 44,000 Allied soldiers who lost their lives during the war, which was a costly failure for the Allies. The Ottoman Empire, which lost 87,000 men in the battle, paid a heavy price for victory.
Therefore, option (c) is correct.
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The photo is of Gregory "Pappy" Boyington, a combat pilot during World War II. Boyington was one of twenty-one Washington residents who
O- Died as a result of fighting during the war.
O- Received the Congressional Medal of Honor.
O- Participated in a total war effort at home.
O- Escaped from a prisoner of war camp.
Boyington was one of twenty-one Washington residents who Received the Congressional Medal of Honor. Thus the correct option is B.
A World War II American combat pilot born on December 4, 1912, was Gregory "Pappy" Boyington. He is best known for his time as a United States Marine Corps aviator and as the commander of the famed "Black Sheep Squadron" of Marine fighters.
Gregory "Pappy" Boyington was a World War II fighter pilot who was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honour for his remarkable bravery and ability in aerial combat during the Battle of the Bismarck Sea in 1943.
Therefore, option B is appropriate.
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line of argument about what role did the American women play in the civil right movement during the civil right movement from the 1950 to 1960
From the 1950s to the 1960s, American women were a vital part of the civil rights movement. They played a significant role in planning and taking part in a number of protests and demonstrations, as well as working behind the scenes to support and supply the movement with resources.
The Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955 is one of the most notable instances of women participating in the civil rights struggle. African Americans boycotted the city's buses when Rosa Parks, a black lady, refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white person in Montgomery, Alabama. The boycott, which was organized and maintained by women for more than a year and ultimately resulted in the desegregation of Montgomery's buses, was a major success.
Other facets of the civil rights struggle included significant contributions from women. For instance, civil rights activist and organizer Ella Baker played a key role in the formation of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), which was crucial in the planning of sit-ins, freedom rides, and other forms of protest. Another activist, Fannie Lou Hamer, was a strong supporter of African Americans' civil rights and the right to vote. She assisted in planning voter registration drives.
Women were active in the civil rights struggle, but they also served crucial supporting roles. They supported activists who were traveling to participate in rallies and demonstrations financially, prepared meals, and offered to the house. Women contributed to the movement by speaking, writing, and acting as liaisons between various organizations and groups.
Even though they made substantial contributions, women's activities in the civil rights struggle were sometimes disregarded or undervalued. A recent study, however, has emphasized the crucial roles played by women in the movement as well as the necessity to acknowledge and honor their contributions to the struggle for social justice and civil rights.
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How did Afghanistan gain independence? Be detailed. Explain steps that led up to their independence.
Afghanistan gain independence from the British Empire in 1919, after many years of fighting and political talks. The steps that led up to their independence:
Anglo-Afghan Wars
The British Empire ruled Afghanistan and tried to set up a puppet government led by Emir Abdur Rahman Khan in the 19th century. Afghanistan fought back against the British and fought two wars with them. The first was from 1839 to 1842, and the second was from 1878 to 1880.
The British did not accomplish their goal of taking over Afghanistan. As a result they were forced to recognize Afghanistan's independence.
Habibullah Khan's reforms
Habibullah Khan became the Emir of Afghanistan At the beginning of the 20th century. He made many social and political changes, such as getting rid of slavery and forming a modern law system.
Amanullah Khan's rule
Habibullah Khan's son, Amanullah Khan, took over when he died. Amanullah Khan started a drive to modernise and make Afghanistan like the West. He started making a constitution and giving the right to vote to women. He also made a new set of laws that were based on European models.
Third Anglo-Afghan War
Amanullah Khan's changes were seen as a threat, so in 1919 British went to war with Afghanistan for the third time. But Afghanistan was strong enough to stop the attack, and the British had to admit that Afghanistan was an independent country.
Treaty of Rawalpindi
Afghan government and the British Empire met to talk about peace After the Third Anglo-Afghan War. These talks led to the Treaty of Rawalpindi. Afghanistan was recognised as an independent, sovereign state, and diplomatic ties were set up between the two countries.
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To stop the spread of Communism after World War II, the United States established a policy known as…
Answer: Containment
Explanation: i'd appreciate it if i got brainliest
what limits does the constitution place on the ability of state and local governments to tax?
Article 265 to Article 289 of the constitution deals with the provision of tax. Article 265 says that no tax shall be levied or collected except by the authority of law, tax levied must be within the legislature power.
The constitution has supreme power it sets the structure that democrates political code, fundamental right, procedures, powers, duties of government , duties of citizens , directive principles.
Whereas tax is the sum imposed by the government on citizens and enterprises and taxation law deals with the rules and regulations that set down when and how much tax should be paid to local, state and federal authorities. Article 265 to Article 289 of the constitution deals with the provision of tax. Article 265 says that no tax shall be levied or collected except by the authority of law, tax levied must be within the legislature power.
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What was the religious tradition that forms the historical start of the Lasallian Movement?
Answer:
it is the founder of the order, St. John Baptist de La Salle,
Explanation:
sorry thats all i know about it i dont know if you are looking for that type of answer